Worked example: Compare the 4004 (1971) with a modern phone processor. Step 1: Intel 4004 had 2,300 transistors on a 12 mm² chip — about 190 transistors per mm². Step 2: A modern 3 nm phone chip packs roughly 200 million transistors per mm². Step 3: Ratio = 200,000,000 / 190 ≈ 1,000,000. A modern chip is about a million times denser. Step 4: In integration-scale terms: the 4004 (2,300 transistors) sits at MSI/LSI boundary, while the phone chip (tens of billions) is deep into ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration), far beyond classic VLSI. Conclusion: Moore's-law scaling over ~55 years multiplied transistor counts by roughly ten million — from thousands to tens of billions.